These ancient cities were built underground — and no one knows exactly why

Some ancient cities were carved deep below the Earth to house thousands — but no one can say for sure why they were built, or what they were hiding from.

by Ivan Petricevic

Derinkuyu Underground City in Cappadocia, Nevsehir, Turkey

Long before steel and concrete-shaped skylines, entire cities were carved deep below the Earth. These were not just emergency shelters — these were fully developed with food storage, schools, temples, and homes. Mind-boggling ancient cities. One could hold over 20,000 people. But despite decades of research, no one knows exactly why they were built. Were they designed to protect from war, climate disaster, or something more mysterious? These hidden cities remain one of archaeology’s most enduring riddles.

Derinkuyu: A vast city buried beneath Cappadocia

In central Turkey’s Cappadocia region, the ancient city of Derinkuyu plunges 18 stories below ground. Discovered by accident in 1963 when a homeowner knocked down a wall and found a hidden room behind it, Derinkuyu revealed an enormous underground complex — complete with kitchens, wine presses, churches, ventilation shafts, and even livestock pens.

At its peak, Derinkuyu could accommodate more than 20,000 people. Stone doors could seal off sections of the city in case of invasion, and long vertical shafts provided fresh air to the deepest levels. The earliest sections may date back to around 800 BCE, with possible Hittite origins, though some scholars argue it could be even older. It was later expanded and used by early Christians fleeing persecution.

Kaymakli: A connected city beneath the stone

Not far from Derinkuyu lies Kaymakli, another underground settlement likely connected by tunnels to its larger neighbor. Unlike the vertical structure of Derinkuyu, Kaymakli spreads out horizontally, with a maze of rooms across at least five known levels — though many believe there are more yet to be discovered.

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Kaymakli was designed for community living, with homes, kitchens, storage areas, and stables all organized into clusters. Its structure suggests it was built not just for hiding, but for long-term habitation. Most experts date its active use to the Byzantine era, especially during times of regional conflict, but some of the rock-cut foundations could be much older.

Mazı: A hidden vertical city carved into the rock

Mazı is a lesser-known but equally fascinating example of ancient underground cities in the Cappadocia region. Unlike the more spacious layouts of Derinkuyu or Kaymakli, Mazı is a vertical settlement, built deep into the volcanic stone with narrow passageways, hidden doors, and steep staircases.

Its design suggests a focus on defense. Invaders could be slowed or trapped in tight corridors, while residents could escape or defend themselves using hidden exits and small observation holes. Archaeological evidence links Mazı to the Roman or early Christian period, but the full timeline of its use is still uncertain.

Özkonak: Engineered for siege survival

Located in northern Cappadocia, Özkonak may be smaller than Derinkuyu, but it features some of the most sophisticated defense features ever found in ancient cities. Built with narrow shafts that allowed residents to pour boiling oil or water on attackers, it also had communication pipes that ran between levels — a rare feature not seen in other sites.

Only four levels of Özkonak have been excavated so far, but archaeologists believe there are deeper chambers waiting to be uncovered. Like many of Cappadocia’s subterranean settlements, the exact age of Özkonak is still debated, though its structure suggests it was built with long-term survival in mind.

Tatlarin: A mysterious city still under excavation

Tatlarin is one of the lesser-explored ancient cities in the region. Located near Nevşehir, it features a chapel, storage rooms, and stables — all carved into the rock. Unlike the larger underground complexes, Tatlarin remains only partially excavated, and much of it is still hidden beneath the surface.

Its layout and architecture suggest it may have served both residential and religious purposes. The lack of large-scale tourism or full excavation gives Tatlarin a unique role in understanding the broader underground building tradition in ancient Anatolia.

Why were entire cities built underground?

I believe that the real mystery behind these ancient cities isn’t just their size, but the decision to build them underground at all. Excavating stone, carving tunnels, and creating entire living systems beneath the surface was no small task. It required time, planning, and purpose.

Some historians believe the cities were designed as defensive strongholds, built to protect people from invasions during unstable periods. With hidden entrances, stone doors, and narrow corridors that could be easily defended, the idea holds weight. Others argue that the underground environment offered relief from extreme weather or natural disasters, allowing communities to survive in harsh conditions.

There is also evidence of religious use. In many of these cities, archaeologists have found chapels, altars, and Christian symbols carved into the rock. This suggests they may have served as places of refuge during times of persecution, particularly in the early centuries of Christianity.

Still, these explanations only go so far. The scale of some cities, with facilities for wine production, animal shelters, and food storage, points to long-term habitation. They were not simple hideouts. They were meant to sustain life.

Perhaps the true answer is a combination of factors, or perhaps we are still missing the bigger picture. Until more evidence comes to light, the reasons why these ancient cities were built underground will remain one of the most compelling questions in archaeology.

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19-12-2025 om 20:54 geschreven door peter  

Lost Egyptian temple is unearthed 4,500 years after it was built in honour of the sun god Ra

• READ MORE: Egypt restores colossal statues of Amenhotep III after 3,200 years

By JONATHAN CHADWICK, ASSISTANT SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EDITOR 

Archeologists have unearthed the remains of a 4,500-year-old Egyptian temple where visitors would sky-gaze while on the roof. 

The building's remains were found at Abu Ghurab, about nine miles south of the Egyptian capital Cairo and five miles west of the River Nile. 

A 'huge' building exceeding 10,000 sq ft (1,000 square metres), the temple was dedicated to the deity Ra, the sun god and father of all creation. 

It was constructed on the orders of Pharaoh Nyuserre Ini, who reigned from approximately 2420 BC to 2389 BC during Egypt's Fifth Dynasty.  

According to Egypt's Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, it had a public calendar of religious events carved into blocks and a roof for astronomical observation.

Photos show several well-persevered elements recovered from the site, including wall fragments featuring hieroglyphics and shards of pottery. 

'With a unique architectural plan, it makes it one of the largest and most prominent temples of the valley,' the ministry said in a translated Facebook post. 

'Carved stone fragments of fancy white limestone are also found, alongside large quantities of pottery.'  

The lost Egyptian temple about 10 miles south of Cairo has been unearthed 4,500 years after it was built in honour of the sun god Ra

The roof of the valley temple was probably used for astronomical observations, according to archaeologists from Italy who led the expedition 

The site was identified as early as 1901 by the German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt, but groundwater levels were too high for excavations to be carried out.

But the latest excavations, which commenced in 2024, have uncovered more than half of the temple, previously buried under sediment, the ministry said. 

Work there has revealed the entrance of the temple, including the original entrance floor and the remains of a circular granite column, likely part of the entrance's porch. 

Portions of the original stone cladding of the corridor walls have also been unearthed, as well as a number of architectural elements such as granite shingles and doors. 

The mission has also discovered the remains of an internal staircase leading to the roof in the northwestern part of the temple – likely a secondary entrance – and a slope believed to have linked the temple to the Nile or one of its branches.

'The roof of the valley temple was probably used for astronomical observations but not for the celebration of the festivals,' Massimiliano Nuzzolo, an archaeologist and excavation co-director, told Live Science. 

Meanwhile, the lower level was 'used as a landing stage for the boats approaching it from the Nile or, more likely, from one of its side channels'. 

The expedition also found a distinctive collection of artifacts, including two wooden pieces of the ancient Egyptian 'Senet' game, resembling modern chess.

The ancient Egyptians enjoyed playing board games, archeological remains of playing piece fragments show, including 'Senet' resembling modern chess 

Photo show several well-persevered elements recovered from the site, including wall fragments featuring hieroglyphics and shards of pottery

'The sanctuary thus became a dwelling and one of the favourite local [games] was probably playing senet,' Nuzzolo added. 

Preliminary studies indicate that the temple, after ending its role as a place of worship, was transformed into a small residential area inhabited by locals.

Further excavation work at the site could reveal more about its history before it was smothered by sediment from the Nile. 

'The mission is preparing to continue its work in the coming seasons to explore more elements of this important archaeological site,' the ministry statement added. 

'Removing the curtain on new details [will] add much to understanding the origin and evolution of the Sun Temples in ancient Egypt.' 

Known for his devotion to the sun god, Pharaoh Nyuserre Ini was the sixth of nine kings who reigned during Egypt's Fifth Dynasty, which ruled Egypt for about 150 years. 

The Fifth Dynasty pharaohs closely identified themselves with Ra, building temples in the deity's honour. 

Hieroglyphic inscriptions found in the valley temple include a public calendar detailing religious events

The mission has first succeeded in uncovering more than half the temple, where a huge building exceeding 1000 square meters appeared

According to the belief at the time, Ra was the king of the deities and the father of all creation, as well as the deity who governed the actions of the sun. 

The Egyptians were an agricultural society living in a desert, so not surprisingly, the sun – and thereby Ra – was an integral component of their cosmos, guiding their thoughts and actions. 

Egyptians in this region relied on the sun and the Nile and the rich, fertile soil that surrounded the river for sustenance, such as bread, beer and vegetables. 

Beer was not simply a staple food for the living, but 'a symbol of status and authority', important in elite feasting and burial rituals 'in this life and the next'.  

It would have been 'a thick porridge' – likely cloudy and sweet with a low alcoholic content – that was mostly made from wheat, barley and grass. 

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17-12-2025 om 22:13 geschreven door peter  

More than 3,000 years after they were damaged by an earthquake, two of Egypt's most breathtaking monuments have been handsomely restored. 

The Colossi of Memnon are two giant alabaster statues on the other side of the Nile from Luxor, the historic city in Upper Egypt. 

Each measuring nearly 50 feet in height, they represent Amenhotep III, the powerful pharaoh who ruled ancient Egypt from 1391 to 1353 BC. 

On Sunday, authorities pulled back the curtain on the repaired statues, described as 'one of the most important landmarks of the Egyptian civilization'. 

They have been restored, reassembled and raised to their original place as part of a renovation project that's lasted around two decades. 

Amenhotep III ruled ancient Egypt at the height of its powers, was worshipped as a living god, and was the grandfather of Tutankhamun.  

Michael Habicht, an archaeologist at Flinders University in Australia, said he 'promoted peace and lived in a time of the greatest economic prosperity'. 

'He might well have been one of the richest men that ever lived, at least in his epoch,' he said. 

The giant alabaster statues, known as the Colossi of Memnon, were reassembled in a renovation project that lasted about two decades

Each measuring nearly 50 feet in height, they represent Amenhotep III, the powerful pharaoh who ruled ancient Egypt about 3,400 years ago

The Colossi of Memnon were originally built in 1350 BC, made from blocks of quartzite sandstone quarried near modern-day Cairo and transported 420 miles.

Both statues depict Amenhotep III seated with hands resting on his thighs, with their faces looking eastward toward the Nile and the rising sun. 

They wear the striped 'nemes' headdress surmounted by the double crowns and the pleated royal kilt, which symbolizes the pharaoh's divine rule. 

Two other small statues on the pharaoh's feet depict his wife, Tiye, while more than 100 inscriptions cover the Colossi in Greek and Latin. 

In about 1200 BC, the colossi were damaged by a strong earthquake that also destroyed Amenhotep III's nearby funerary temple. 

The statues were fragmented and partly quarried away, with their pedestals dispersed.

Some of their blocks were reused in Luxor's Karnak temple, but archaeologists brought them back to rebuild the colossi, according to the Antiquities Ministry. 

The colossi are of great significance to Luxor, a city known for its ancient temples and other antiquities and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. 

The Colossi of Memnon were originally built in 1350 BC, made from blocks of quartzite sandstone quarried near modern-day Cairo and transported 420 miles 

In late 1990s, an Egyptian German mission, chaired by German Egyptologist Hourig Sourouzian, began working in the temple area, including the assembly and renovation of the colossi

Pictured, visitors take photos with the two giant reassembled alabaster statues of Pharoah Amenhotep III, in the southern city of Luxor, Egypt, Sunday, December 14, 2025

They´re also an attempt to 'revive how this funerary temple of king Amenhotep III looked like a long time ago', said Mohamed Ismail, secretary-general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. 

Amenhotep III, one of the most prominent pharaohs, ruled during the 500 years of the New Kingdom, which was the most prosperous time for ancient Egypt. 

The pharaoh, whose mummy is showcased at a Cairo museum, ruled between 1390-1353 BC, a peaceful period known for its prosperity, prosperity and grandeur.  

'Diplomatic letters by foreign potentates begged him to send them some gold as a present, "as gold shall be abundant in Egypt as sand",' Dr Habicht said. 

'It's the usual over-exaggeration for such a letter, but nevertheless hints towards extreme wealth.'

According to the academic, the pharaoh may also have been something of a womanizer, importing hundreds of foreign women to be part of his harem. 

'He was apparently very interested in women; he imported hundreds of foreign harem ladies and collected them as other people collect postal stamps,' he said.

Amenhotep III's reign was also known for great construction, including his mortuary temple, where the Colossi of Memnon are located, and another temple, Soleb, in Nubia. 

Amenhotep III, one of the most prominent pharaohs, ruled during the 500 years of the New Kingdom, which was the most prosperous time for ancient Egypt

Unlike other monumental sculptures of ancient Egypt, the colossi were partly compiled with pieces sculpted separately, which were fixed into each statue´s main monolithic alabaster core, the ministry said

He is thought to have died between the ages of 40 and 50, leaving his successor (son Akhenaten IV) a kingdom at the height of its power and wealth. 

Amenhotep IV would rebel against the powerful Amun priesthood, installing the sun god Aten as the top Egyptian deity.

He changed his name to Akhenaten – meaning 'beneficial to Aten' – and even moved his capital away from Thebes – the 'city of Amun' – to a new city honouring the sun god, Akhetaten.

But his son, Tutankhaten, would restore the cult of Amun to prominence, changing his name to Tutankhamun – meaning 'the living image of Amun'.

Tutankhamun would become one of history's most famous pharaohs thanks to the discovery of his tomb in 1922, which was largely intact and contained many of its original artifacts.

WERE KING TUTANKHAMUN'S PARENTS ALSO COUSINS?

The complex family arrangements of Tutankhamun has been one of the great mysteries surrounding the young king.

While his father was known to have been Pharaoh Akhenaten, the identity of his mother has been far more elusive.

DNA testing has shown that Queen Tiye, whose mummy is pictured above, was the grandmother of the Egyptian Boy King Tutankhamun

In 2010 DNA testing confirmed a mummy found in the tomb of Amenhotep II was Queen Tiye, the chief wife of Amenhotep III, mother of Pharaoh Akhenanten, and Tutankhamun's grandmother.

A third mummy, thought to be one of Pharaoh Akhenaten wives, was found to be a likely candidate as Tutankhamun's mother, but DNA evidence showed it was Akhenaten's sister.

Later analysis in 2013 suggested Nefertiti, Akhenaten's chief wife, was Tutankhamun's mother.

However, the work by Marc Gabolde, a French archaeologist, has suggested Nefertiti was also Akhenaten's cousin.

This incestuous parentage may also help to explain some of the malformations that scientists have discovered afflicted Tutankhamun.

He suffered a deformed foot, a slightly cleft palate and mild curvature of the spine.

However, his claims have been disputed by other Egyptologists, including Zahi Hawass, head of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities.

His team's research suggests that Tut's mother was, like Akhenaten, the daughter of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye. 

Hawass added that there is 'no evidence' in archaeology or philology to indicate that Nefertiti was the daughter of Amenhotep III.

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16-12-2025 om 21:47 geschreven door peter  

Ancient cubed-shaped skull found in Mexico challenges human history

• MORE:  Mysterious species found living alongside our earliest ancestors deemed missing link in evolution

By CHRIS MELORE, US ASSISTANT SCIENCE EDITOR

An ancient cube-shaped skull unearthed in Mexico is rewriting our understanding of the ancient world, revealing a completely unique member of a society from 1,400 years ago.

This remarkable skull belonged to a man over 40 years old who lived during Mexico's Classic period, roughly between 400 and 900 AD, according to specialists from the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH).

It was discovered at the Balcón de Montezuma archaeological site in the mountainous northern Huasteca region of Mexico's Tamaulipas state.

Researchers determined through bone and teeth analysis that the man was born, lived his entire life, and died right there in the local mountains, with no evidence he ever moved or lived in another region.

The team added that the find was 'unprecedented' in this part of the world as a skull deformed to resemble a cube had never been found near Huasteca before.

The skull's unique appearance was the result of intentional cranial deformation, a practice where flat boards and bandages were pressed against a baby's soft head for years to mold it into a square shape.

This deformation was likely done without causing pain, as the skull bones of an infant are malleable, allowing families to gradually reshape the head as a cultural tradition.

Experts believe such rituals were performed to signify beauty, social status, or even spiritual connections in ancient Mesoamerican societies.

Researchers in Mexico have discovered a man's skull which was deformed to take the shape of a cube roughly 1,400 years ago (Pictured)

The skull was found at the Balcón de Montezuma archaeological site in the northern Huasteca region of Mexico's Tamaulipas state

Archaeologists have previously uncovered a variety of intentionally modified skulls across ancient Mexico, particularly elongated cone-like shapes among the Olmec and Maya.

Those cone-shaped skull changes are believed to have been achieved by gently binding infants' soft heads with cloth and bandages during the first months or years of their lives.

To the ancient Mesoamericans, these oddly-shaped skulls held a different significance depending on the ancient civilization making the changes to their babies. For example, the ancient Maya are believed to have done this for social status and beauty.

However, the newly discovered cube skull has left researchers with a mystery, as the team from INAH could not explain why this man was the only human to undergo this procedure in Tamaulipas.

Cube-shaped skulls, with their flattened tops that create a boxy profile, have typically been found at distant sites like El Zapotal in Veracruz and scattered Maya settlements in southeastern Mexico, far from the northern mountains where this fossil turned up.

With that in mind, the research team decided to test if the 40-year-old was truly a native of the northern Huasteca region.

Scientists looked at specific clues hidden in his bones and teeth. These clues are called 'stable oxygen isotopes,' or different versions of oxygen atoms that don't change over time.

The exact mix of these oxygen versions in bones and teeth come from the water a person drinks throughout their life.

The research team was able to confirm that this man spent his entire life in the region, making his cube-shaped skull more of a mystery since this ritual was unusual for the area

Water in different places, such as in rainy mountains or dry coasts, has its own unique oxygen 'fingerprint' because of the local climate and geography.

By testing those oxygen fingerprints in the man's tooth enamel, which formed in childhood, and bone collagen, which updates through adulthood, researchers saw the same mountain water pattern in both.

That made it a match for the local mountain water this person likely drank his whole life in Mexico's northern mountains.

Physical anthropologist Jesús Ernesto Velasco González said: 'Stable oxygen isotope studies in collagen and bioapatite samples from bone and teeth, a technique used to infer the geographic origin of the second individual's skeletal remains, indicate that he was born, lived, and died in this part of the mountains.'

'Therefore, the results rule out a direct mobility relationship with the groups of El Zapotal or those further south,' the researcher continued in a statement translated to English.

While the team is still trying to crack the mystery behind the cube-shaped skull, they said it likely wasn't just about looking different, but may have been a symbol of belonging to a larger cultural family that stretched across hundreds of miles of Mexican coastline.

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15-12-2025 om 18:07 geschreven door peter  

Ancient Egypt's origin story rewritten after scientists reveal new timeline for its most powerful era

• READ MORE: Hidden mega-structures beneath Egypt's Giza pyramids are 'confirmed' by scientists

By STACY LIBERATORE, US SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EDITOR

A new discovery has rewritten the timeline of Egypt's early dynasties, placing the rise of the New Kingdom nearly a century later than previously thought.

The New Kingdom, which lasted from 1550 to 1070 BCE, was Egypt's peak of power, wealth, and territorial expansion, the era of famous rulers like Tutankhamun. 

It began with the 18th Dynasty, founded by Pharaoh Ahmose I, who reunited Egypt and expelled the Hyksos invaders, restoring central authority after a period of fragmentation.

Now, scientists have confirmed that the massive Santorini (Thera) volcanic eruption occurred before the reign of Ahmose, meaning the 18th Dynasty, and the New Kingdom itself, rose later than previously believed. 

Until now, historians had often assumed the eruption might have coincided with the early New Kingdom, and some researchers even tried to link it to specific pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III or Ahmose I.

The breakthrough comes from radiocarbon dating of Egyptian artifacts from the 17th and early 18th Dynasties. 

Researchers examined a mudbrick stamped with Ahmose's name, a linen burial cloth, and wooden funerary figures called shabtis, all of which were directly tied to known pharaohs and their temples. 

Because these objects are anchored to specific historical contexts, their ages provide a reliable snapshot of the period. The study shows that the eruption predates these artifacts, reshaping how historians understand the rise of Egypt's most powerful period.

By reanalyzing ancient Egyptian artifacts, like a brick stamped with a pharaoh's seal, scientists were able to change the timeline

Scientists have confirmed that the massive Santorini (Thera) volcanic eruption occurred before the reign of Ahmose, meaning the 18th Dynasty, and the New Kingdom itself, rose later than previously believed 

The Santorini volcano, located about 75 miles north of Crete, is surrounded by the small islands of Thera, Therasia, and Aspronisi. 

Over time, it has produced many large, explosive eruptions, but the most famous occurred during the Late Minoan IA period, around 1600 to 1480 BC. 

This eruption buried the town of Akrotiri on southern Thera under thick layers of volcanic ash. 

Fine ash was carried by winds and fell as far away as eastern Crete, demonstrating the eruption's enormous regional impact.

Traditionally, the Thera eruption has been linked to Egypt's 18th Dynasty, with scholars using it as a rough marker for dating early New Kingdom events. 

However, the new radiocarbon analysis showed the eruption actually occurred earlier, during the Second Intermediate Period, a time before Egypt had fully reunited under Ahmose. 

This means that previous assumptions tying the eruption directly to the early New Kingdom were incorrect.

'This study provides the first direct radiocarbon comparison between the Thera eruption and Egyptian artifacts from this transitional period,' said the researchers from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev and the University of Groningen.

Researchers examined a mudbrick stamped with Ahmose's name, a linen burial cloth, and wooden funerary figures called shabtis (pictured), all of which were directly tied to known pharaohs and their temples

'It allows us to anchor one of the most dramatic natural events in the eastern Mediterranean to Egypt's own historical timeline for the first time.'

The findings carry broader implications for our understanding of the ancient world.

By showing that the eruption happened earlier than previously thought, historians and archaeologists can now reassess cultural and trade interactions between Egypt, Crete, and other Mediterranean regions.

This includes everything from the movement of goods and ideas to migrations prompted by natural disasters.

The research also demonstrated the power of modern science to reshape what we know about ancient history. 

Even civilizations studied for thousands of years, like Ancient Egypt, can have their timelines refined through new techniques and careful analysis. 

The results support the 'low chronology' model, which positions the start of the 18th Dynasty a bit later than previously thought. 

Photograph published in 1916, showing four 12th Dynasty shabtis and one shabti attributed by him to the 17th Dynasty

Pictured is the Khufu Pyramid, also known as the Great Pyramid, in Giza Pyramid Complex.

As lead author Hendrik J Bruins put it, “Our findings indicate that the Second Intermediate Period lasted considerably longer than traditional assessments, and the New Kingdom started later.” 

Although the adjustment is modest in years, it carries major historical significance.

Ahmose’s reunification of Egypt marks a critical turning point, and moving its date reshapes how scholars understand the political and cultural transformation that ushered in Egypt’s New Kingdom. 

{ https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/index.html }

13-12-2025 om 21:45 geschreven door peter  

“With this paper, we wanted to clearly define a technology and associate it with the Roman period in the year 79 C.E.,” explained MIT Associate Professor Admir Masic.

How ‘Hot Mixing’ Gave Roman Concrete its Self-Healing Properties

According to a press release announcing the research, the first person to document the process of making Roman concrete was Vitruvius in his 1st-century BCE text “De architectura.” Although the ancient text is considered the first known book to discuss architectural theory, the process it describes for mixing Roman concrete has created a modern-day controversy.

According to Vitruvius, the Romans added water to lime to create a concrete predecessor. After this step was completed, other ingredients, such as volcanic ash, were added to make the final concrete product. Unfortunately for the ancient scholar, a 2023 study of Roman concrete by Professor Masic and his collaborators showed that this mixture would not have resulted in the robust, long-lasting material we see today.

“Having a lot of respect for Vitruvius, it was difficult to suggest that his description may be inaccurate,” Professor Masic said.

Instead, the original study found that lime fragments, volcanic ash, and other dry ingredients were mixed separately before water was added. Once the mixed dry materials and water were stirred, they would produce heat.

Described by Masic’s team as “hot mixing,” the process traps and preserves the lime as small, gravel-like features. Because lime is highly reactive, these preserved ‘clasts’ can fill in cracks and re-dissolve. Scientists believe this self-healing property is among the key reasons Roman concrete has persevered for over 2,000 years.

New Analysis Finds Vitruvius Was Wrong

To confirm or refute Viruvius’ account, Masic’s team gained access to an ancient concrete wall that was in the process of being built. The site also contained fully completed buttresses and a structural wall, the latter including examples of mortar repairs still visible after two millennia.

“We were blessed to be able to open this time capsule of a construction site and find piles of material ready to be used for the wall,” Masic said of the ancient Pompeian site.

After performing several tests, the researchers determined that the ancient walls and buttresses offered “the clearest evidence yet” that jot mixing was responsible for the strength and durability of Roman concrete. For example, the samples collected at the site contained the lime clasts Masic’s team had described in 2023.

The team also discovered a dry raw-material pile containing intact fragments of quicklime that had been pre-mixed with other dry materials. The researchers note that premixing the dry ingredients before adding the water to generate a heat reaction is a “critical first step” in hot-mixed concrete production.

{ https://thedebrief.org/category/science/ }

12-12-2025 om 20:33 geschreven door peter  

Archaeologists Discover Earliest Evidence of Fire-Making

rchaeologists have unearthed 400,000-year-old heated sediments and fire-cracked flint handaxes alongside two fragments of pyrite — a mineral used in later periods to strike sparks with flint — at Barnham, Suffolk, the United Kingdom. The discovery shows humans were making fire around 350,000 years earlier than previously known.

An artist’s impression of fire at Barnham around 400,000 years ago.

Image credit: Craig Williams / The Trustees of the British Museum.

The ability of humans to make and maintain fires marks an important moment in human development: fires provided warmth, offered protection from predators and enabled cooking, which expanded the range of foods that could be consumed.

Indications of fires in sites inhabited by humans date to more than one million years ago.

However, determining when humans learned how to create fire is challenging.

Fire use probably began with opportunistic harvesting of natural wildfires before our ancestors mastered the art of deliberately starting fires.

Previous evidence for early fire-making has been found at Neanderthal sites in France dating to 50,000 years ago, where handaxes that seem to have been used to strike pyrite to create sparks have been found.

The new evidence discovered by Professor Nick Ashton, an archaeologist with the British Museum and the Institute of Archaeology at University College London, and his colleagues suggests that fire-making may have been happening 400,000 years ago in Barnham, the United Kingdom.

The archaeologists discovered heated sediments in ancient soils along with fire-cracked flint handaxes.

These features indicate that fire was being controlled in a human settlement, but it is the third finding that suggests that the fire-making was deliberate.

Two fragments of pyrite were discovered on the site; however, this mineral is rare in this region, leading the researchers to propose that pyrite was purposefully brought to the site to be used for fire-making.

Together, the findings indicate complex behavior in ancient humans at the Barnham site.

For example, these humans may have understood the properties of pyrite to use it as part of a fire-making kit.

Developing this skill would have provided many benefits, including the ability to cook food and potentially driving the advancement of technologies such as glue-making for hafted tools, which may have contributed to notable developments in human behavior.

“The people who made fire at Barnham at 400,000 years ago were probably early Neanderthals, based on the morphology of fossils around the same age from Swanscombe, Kent, and Atapuerca in Spain, who even preserve early Neanderthal DNA,” said Professor Chris Stringer, a paleoanthropologist at Natural History Museum, London.

“This is the most remarkable discovery of my career, and I’m very proud of the teamwork that it has taken to reach this groundbreaking conclusion,” Professor Ashton said.

“It’s incredible that some of the oldest groups of Neanderthals had the knowledge of the properties of flint, pyrite and tinder at such an early date.”

“The implications are enormous,” said Dr. Rob Davis, a project curator at the British Museum.

“The ability to create and control fire is one of the most important turning points in human history with practical and social benefits that changed human evolution.”

“This extraordinary discovery pushes this turning point back by some 350,000 years.”

• The discovery is reported in a paper published today in the journal Nature.
• R. Davis et al. Earliest evidence of making fire. Nature, published online December 10, 2025; doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09855-6

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{ https://www.sci.news/news/archaeology }

11-12-2025 om 22:07 geschreven door peter  

A team of Italian scientists took the world by storm last March when they announced the discovery of a colossal underground complex plunging nearly 3,500 feet beneath Egypt's Giza Plateau and linking chambers the size of city blocks.

Now Filippo Biondi, the radar engineer who developed the imaging method, has gone public with evidence that he said leaves little room for doubt.

In a new interview on Jesse Michels' American Alchemy podcast, Biondi revealed that four independent satellite operators, Umbra, Capella Space, ICEYE and Italy's Cosmo-SkyMed, all returned identical raw tomography data showing the same structures.

'All four satellites gave exactly the same results,' Biondi said. 'That is really amazing. We cannot announce anything without these basic scientific methods.'

Using a technique he pioneered called synthetic aperture radar Doppler tomography, Biondi's team measures microscopic vibrations on the Earth's surface. 

Those vibrations carry acoustic 'fingerprints' from objects thousands of feet underground, allowing the software to reconstruct 3D images even though the radar waves themselves never penetrate the soil.

The scans reveal eight massive hollow cylinders dropping straight down from the base of the Khafre pyramid, the middle of the three great pyramids. 

Each shaft has a central column wrapped in perfect helical coils and terminates more than 3,500 feet below the plateau in 260 × 260 × 260-foot cubic chambers, larger than most modern sports arenas.

The Italian scientists who claimed to have found hidden structures beneath Egypt's Giza pyramids said four independent satellite operators all returned identical raw tomography data showing the same structures

'The pyramids are the tip of the iceberg,' Biondi declared. 'It's just a hat to complete something that is located underneath. The substance is below.

'When asked if the spirals could be natural formations, he shot back: "100 percent. It's man-made. You do not find perfect coils like this in geology".'

However, many mainstream experts, including Egyptologist Dr Zahi Hawass, have dismissed the findings as 'fake news' since they were announced this spring. 

Hawass has pushed back on the claims, arguing that the radar technology cannot penetrate beneath the pyramid to the extent the Italian researchers suggest 

But the criticism has not stopped the Italian researchers, as they have found the same signature in smaller form under the third pyramid, Menkaure, and as a single giant shaft beneath the Sphinx. 

Identical spiral-shaft geometry was also detected 30 miles away at Hawara, the site ancient writers called the Labyrinth.

The Giza complex consists of three pyramids, Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, built 4,500 years ago on a rocky plateau on the west bank of the Nile River in northern Egypt. 

So far, the team has measured a depth of over 3,280 feet, more than half a mile down.

The structures appeared like tubes, a total of eight, descending from the base of the pyramid to what looked like huge chambers more than 260 feet wide and 260 feet high, sitting at the bottom.

Filippo Biondi (left) made the announcement while speaking with podcast host Jesse Michels

The team said the technology captured enormous chambers (pictured) at the bottom of the shafts

The scans also captured a spiral-like structure around each of the eight shafts.

Read More

• Scientists discover mysterious form of energy in Egypt's pyramids that should only exist in modern times 

Biondi admitted he and his team do not know the purpose of these structures, but theorized the spirals could be stairs or cables wrapped around each one. 

'I can say that this structure, the tubes extending beneath the pyramid, seems to be related to information,' he said.

'Generating energy is a kind of information. Information is everything.' 

To silence skeptics who claimed the images were AI hallucinations, Biondi pointed to blind tests, including his method perfectly imaged Italy's Gran Sasso underground physics laboratory,  buried inside a mountain 125 miles away, with 100 percent accuracy.

The team has already submitted a formal proposal to Egyptian authorities under the Khafre Research Project. 

The plan requires no drilling, as existing shafts between the Sphinx and Khafre pyramid, currently filled with centuries of debris, appear in the scans to be service entrances leading directly into the kilometer-deep complex.

The iconic pyramids of Giza are already one of the world's greatest enigmas. But in March, the mystery deepened when a team of Italian scientists said they found a vast city and network of tunnels stretching thousands of feet below the Egyptian structures

'We only need permission to clean them and descend,' Biondi said. 'If they approve before the end of this year, physical exploration could begin in 2026.'

Podcast host Jesse Michels, visibly stunned, closed the interview with: 'After this conversation, I'm convinced on a lot of it. 

'These kinds of discoveries are speeding up. Humanity feels ready.'

{ https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/index.html }

09-12-2025 om 23:19 geschreven door peter  

Stunning treasure trove discovered in ancient Egyptian tomb rewrites history

By STACY LIBERATORE, US SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EDITOR and AFP

Archaeologists in Egypt have uncovered a stunning treasure trove hidden inside an ancient royal tomb, a discovery so rare it is rewriting history. 

Buried deep beneath the sands of Tanis, researchers found 225 exquisitely crafted funerary figurines arranged in a mysterious ceremonial pattern, yet the tomb itself was empty of a body. 

The find has electrified the archaeological world, not only for its scale but for its baffling implications. 

More than half of the figurines are female, an almost unheard-of feature in royal burials, raising new questions about funerary customs during Egypt’s fractured Third Intermediate Period. 

The figurines were laid out in a star-like formation and in perfect horizontal rows, suggesting an intentional ritual design untouched for nearly 3,000 years. 

This is the first time in almost 80 years that figurines have been discovered undisturbed inside a royal tomb at Tanis, making it one of the most significant finds at the site since the 1940s. 

Most astonishing of all, the royal symbols on the miniature servants confirm that the empty tomb belonged to Pharaoh Shoshenq III, a ruler whose final resting place has puzzled Egyptologists for decades.  He reigned from 830 to 791 BC.

The revelation overturns long-held assumptions and reignites the mystery of why the pharaoh never made it into his own tomb. 

A total o  f 225 funerary figurines, crafted as servants to accompany the dead into the afterlife, were uncovered. The discovery led the team to find that the tomb belonged to Pharaoh Shoshenq III, who reigned from 830 to 791 BC

More than half of the figurines are female, a rare feature for such tombs

The excavation team carefully removed the figurines over 10 days, working through the night to preserve their fragile condition. 

After the study, the figurines will be displayed in an Egyptian museum, offering the public a rare glimpse into the burial practices of one of Egypt's most enigmatic pharaohs.

French egyptologist Frederic Payraudeau told reporters in Paris on Friday that the discovery was 'astonishing' because the walls of a different tomb at the site, and the largest sarcophagus there, bear his name.

'Why isn't he buried in this tomb?' the Payraudeau asked.

'Obviously, for a pharaoh, building a tomb is a gamble because you can never be sure your successor will bury you there,' he said.

'Clearly, we have new proof that these gambles are not always successful,' Payraudeau said with a smile.

Shoshenq III ruled during Egypt’s Third Intermediate Period, a time marked by political fragmentation and frequent power struggles.

His four-decade reign was turbulent, marred by a 'very bloody civil war between upper and lower Egypt, with several pharaohs fighting for power,' he said.

Picture is the area where the tomb was excuvat

So it is possible that the royal succession did not go as planned and the pharaoh was not buried in his chosen tomb.

Another possibility is that his remains were moved later due to looting.

French Egyptologist Pierre Montet first uncovered the limestone tomb in 1939, located adjacent to the Temple of Amun. 

Although the tomb had been looted in ancient times, the largest of its four chambers still held the granite sarcophagus of Osorkon II, a pharaoh of Egypt's 22nd Dynasty. 

The team has already excavated the other three corners of a narrow tomb occupied by an imposing, unnamed sarcophagus.

'When we saw three or four figurines together, we knew right away it was going to be amazing,' Payraudeau said.

'I ran out to tell my colleagues and the officials. After that, it was a real struggle. It was the day before the weekend, normally, we stop at 2 pm. We thought: 'This is not possible.''

Such a find has also never happened before further south in Egypt's Valley of the Kings near modern Luxor,  apart from the tomb of the famous boy king Tutankhamun in 1922, because most such sites have been looted throughout history, Payraudeau added. 

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 { https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/index.html }

06-12-2025 om 23:21 geschreven door peter  

Paleo Diet Myth: Humans Were Mass Processing Plants 170,000 Years Ago

Gary Manners

Archaeological research once again dispells the widespread belief that our Paleolithic ancestors were primarily meat-eaters, revealing instead that they were sophisticated plant food processors who thrived on a diverse diet thousands of years before the advent of agriculture. The study, published in the Journal of Archaeological Research by researchers from the Australian National University and the University of Toronto Mississauga, demonstrates that early humans were grinding wild seeds, pounding starchy tubers, and detoxifying bitter nuts as far back as 170,000 years ago.

"We often discuss plant use as if it only became important with the advent of agriculture," explained Dr. Anna Florin, co-author of the study titled "The Broad Spectrum Species: Plant Use and Processing as Deep Time Adaptations." According to Phys.org, the research fundamentally challenges the popular narrative of Paleolithic humans as hyper-carnivorous hunters. 

"However, new archaeological discoveries from around the world are telling us our ancestors were grinding wild seeds, pounding and cooking starchy tubers, and detoxifying bitter nuts many thousands of years before this," Florin added.

• 170,000-Year-Old Human Diet Contained Roast Vegetables
• Ancient Paleo Diet Debunked: Human Ancestors Loved Carbs

Grinding stones were a 'major evolutionary success' as they allowed people to unlock the energy in plants by making flour.

(José-Manuel Benito Álvarez/ CC BY-SA 2.5)

The Broad Spectrum Species Hypothesis

The research introduces a compelling alternative to the traditional Broad Spectrum Revolution hypothesis, which suggested that humans only diversified their diets around 10,000 years ago due to environmental pressures and population growth. Instead, the study proposes the "broad-spectrum species" hypothesis, arguing that dietary flexibility and plant food processing have been fundamental human characteristics throughout our evolutionary history. This ability to process plant foods allowed early humans to unlock essential calories and nutrients, enabling them to colonize and thrive in diverse environments across the globe.

Dr. Monica Ramsey, the study's other co-author, emphasized that processed plant foods were crucial to early human survival. "This ability to process plant foods allowed us to unlock key calories and nutrients, and to move into, and thrive in, a range of environments globally," Ramsey stated in a press release. She colorfully summarized the findings:

"Our species evolved as plant-loving, tool-using foodies who could turn almost anything into dinner."

• Prehistoric Neanderthal and Human Chefs Cooked Up Complex Meals
• Stone Age People Were Eating Porridge 32,000 Years Ago

Archaeological Evidence of Ancient Food Processing

One of the primary challenges in recognizing the importance of plant foods in ancient diets has been the preservation bias in the archaeological record. Animal remains, particularly bones, survive far better than plant materials over millennia. However, recent discoveries across multiple continents have revealed extensive evidence of sophisticated plant food processing dating back far earlier than previously imagined. Researchers have analyzed plant macrofossil assemblages that show evidence of diverse processing techniques, including cooking, peeling, fat extraction, pounding, and roasting.

These processing activities were often employed in multi-step, labor-intensive sequences that demonstrate remarkable technological sophistication. By processing plant foods through various methods, early humans were able to extract nutrients and energy more efficiently, improve palatability, and enhance digestibility. The thermal processing of plant foods has been documented at early human and Neanderthal sites in Africa, Southwest Asia, and southern Europe dating back as far as 170,000 years ago.

Map of all archaeological sites with direct evidence for early plant food use, dating from ≥35 kya, as well as, Ohalo II; listed in chronological order.

(Florin & Ramsey/Journal of Archaeological Research)

Implications for Human Evolution and Modern Diets

The findings have profound implications for understanding human evolution and the popular modern "paleo diet" movement. Contrary to the meat-centric narrative often promoted by paleo diet advocates, the research demonstrates that humans have never been hyper-carnivores. Instead, our ancestors exhibited remarkable dietary flexibility, adapting their food choices to available resources and environmental changes. This adaptability, particularly the ability to process diverse plant foods, directly contributed to our evolutionary success as a species.

The research team's work reveals that processed plant foods were not a late addition to human diets prompted by agricultural development, but rather a fundamental component of human nutrition throughout our existence. This challenges the premise of strict paleo diet interpretations that emphasize heavy meat consumption while minimizing the importance of plant-based foods, particularly those requiring processing. The evidence suggests that our ancestors were omnivorous opportunists who skillfully exploited whatever food resources their environments provided, using innovative technologies to make these resources more nutritious and accessible.

• Top image: Tribe of Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers Wearing Animal Skins Grilling and Eating Meat in Cave.
• Source: Hunman/Adobe Stock

By Gary Manners

References

• Florin, S.A., et al. 2025. The Broad Spectrum Species: Plant Use and Processing as Deep Time Adaptations. Journal of Archaeological Research. Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10814-025-09214-z
• Phys.org. 2025. Archaeological study challenges paleo diet, revealing humans have long eaten 'processed plant foods'. Available at: https://phys.org/news/2025-12-archaeological-paleo-diet-revealing-humans.html
• Discover Magazine. 2025. Early Humans Mastered Plant Processing 170,000 Years Ago, Challenging the Paleolithic Meat-Eater Myth. Available at: https://www.discovermagazine.com/early-humans-mastered-plant-processing-170-000-years-ago-challenging-the-paleolithic-meat-eater-myth-48340

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

04-12-2025 om 23:46 geschreven door peter  

Overview

In a recent episode of his widely followed podcast, Joe Rogan and his guests delved into the longstanding enigmas of the Egyptian pyramids, focusing particularly on new radar evidence suggesting the existence of intricate underground structures beneath these ancient monuments. The discussion touched on advanced ancient engineering, possible lost civilizations, and the intersection of myth and emerging science—prompting new questions about humanity's distant past.

Underground Structures and Advanced Engineering

Rogan referenced synthetic aperture radar scans conducted by Italian researchers, which have reportedly revealed vast subterranean complexes beneath the pyramids. According to the guests, these scans indicate the presence of columns and spiral tubes forming what could be interpreted as an "energy grid" extending as deep as two kilometers underground. One guest, who had interviewed the Italian team, explained: "There are these structures, tubes, huge tubes that are the stranding underneath and we have noticed... these tubes have a sort of spiral nature."

The scale and complexity of these findings raise questions about the technological capabilities of ancient builders. Rogan emphasized the logistical marvel of the pyramids, noting that more than two million stones—some weighing up to 90 tons—were precisely aligned and transported over great distances. The conversation speculated that the society responsible may have possessed health and engineering technologies surpassing those currently known to mainstream archaeology.

Ancient Cataclysms and Lost Civilizations

The discussion also bridged ancient myth and geological science, highlighting Plato’s account of Atlantis. As recounted, the date given for Atlantis’s destruction—9,600 BC—aligns with a well-documented geological phenomenon known as Meltwater Pulse 1B, a sudden, massive sea level rise that occurred around 11,600 years ago. Rogan and his guests pointed out that this era coincides with the end of the Younger Dryas, a period marked by dramatic climatic upheaval.

"Nobody disputes that there was a Meltwater Pulse 1B. And it raised sea levels massively, literally overnight," one guest noted, suggesting that such cataclysms could have erased evidence of earlier advanced societies, supporting theories of lost civilizations far older than traditionally accepted by historians.

Sumerian Kings List and Longevity Speculation

The conversation shifted to ancient Mesopotamia, specifically the Sumerian Kings List, a document that blends historical rulers with legendary figures claimed to have reigned for tens of thousands of years. Rogan and his guests observed the strange juxtaposition of myth and reality, with some kings' reigns corresponding to plausible human lifespans and others described as living for millennia.

They speculated on the possibility of ancient longevity technologies, citing modern experiments in life extension. Rogan referenced hyperbaric chamber therapies and research on cellular aging, including studies showing the lengthening of telomeres—a marker of youthfulness—through specific medical protocols. He remarked, "We're real close to being able to do weird [stuff] right now. And there’s a lot of people that believe that if you can make it to 90 right now, you're going to be able to make it to like 300 years old." The implication: if ancient societies had cracked such technologies, it could help explain their monumental achievements.

The Ongoing Mystery

While the podcast acknowledged the speculative nature of some claims, it underscored the growing body of evidence that challenges the conventional timeline of human civilization. The combination of advanced underground structures, the alignment of mythic dates with geological events, and enigmatic ancient records like the Sumerian Kings List invites further scientific investigation.

For now, the mysteries beneath the pyramids remain unsolved, but as Rogan and his guests concluded, "There’s something strange under the pyramids," and the search for answers continues to captivate both researchers and the public alike.

{ https://usubjects.com/  }

04-12-2025 om 22:46 geschreven door peter  

Neolithic Britain

Although Stonehenge is the most famous Neolithic construction in Britain, it is located close to two other notable features. One is Woodhenge, a timber monument about 3 kilometers from Stonehenge, that was discovered in a 1926 aerial photograph. Evidence from the site, such as pig remains, suggests it was a place associated with vitality and living worship.

Durrington Walls, unlike Stonehenge and Woodhenge, was not a ceremonial site but a settlement. It was situated close to Woodhenge, also about 3 kilometers from Stonehenge. Excavations two decades ago uncovered seven homes, but archaeologists estimate that the site once boasted around 1,000 homes and 4,000 residents. This would have made Durrington Walls the largest settlement in Europe for a portion of its suspected 500-year occupancy.

The series of recently discovered pits, whose perimeter encircles all three sites, underscores the close link between Woodhenge and Durrington Walls.

A Mysterious ring of Ancient Pits

Initially, some of the Durrington circle pits were dismissed as natural sinkholes. However, the researchers note that the pits’ internal structures and distributions do not correspond to what would be typical of sinkholes. The team concedes that some of the pits may’ve originated as natural features that were later excavated further. Analysis of the pits’ contents suggests possible bone-derived material and quartz.

Similar networks of large pits have been discovered elsewhere in Britain in recent decades. Large-scale investigations of the British pits have revealed that they were likely not used for hunting or storage. Commonly found near bodies of water, archaeologists interpret them as having ritual significance.

Exploring a Neolithic Mystery

Discovering and mapping the holes was only the beginning, as new research explores the environment and origins of the structures. Techniques employed in the study include advanced Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating and environmental DNA (sedaDNA), along with more traditional methods such as sediment analysis, geochemistry, and borehole coring.

According to the team’s findings, Late Neolithic humans constructed the pits around the same time as Durrington Walls. Fine clay-silt layers at the bottoms of the 4.5-6.9 meter deep pits indicate that the pits were gradually infilled. The SedaDNA and soil chemistry analyses provided evidence for what types of plants grew in the area and how the pits fit into their surroundings. Notably, much of the DNA found in the infill was not from local sources.

A Deeper Understanding of Ancient Britain

“The recent work confirms that the circle of shafts surrounding Durrington Walls is without precedent within the UK,” said lead author Professor Vince Gaffney, of the University of Bradford. “These features were not simply dug and abandoned – they were part of a structured, monumental landscape that speaks to the complexity and sophistication of Neolithic society.”

The research marks a significant step away from viewing such finds as merely “mysterious holes” and toward seeing them as meaningful indicators of how ancient peoples lived. Presently, the researchers suggest that the holes marked a sacred boundary, cutting off the ceremonial activity occurring at Durrington Walls during the period.

Fundamentally, understanding the purpose of these features, their chronology, and their environment helps to sharpen our understanding of the lives of the Neolithic people of Britain.

The paper, “The Perils of Pits: Further Research at Durrington Walls Henge (2021–2025),” appeared in Internet Archaeology in November 2025.

• Ryan Whalen covers science and technology for The Debrief. He holds an MA in History and a Master of Library and Information Science with a certificate in Data Science. He can be contacted at ryan@thedebrief.org, and follow him on Twitter @mdntwvlf.

{ https://thedebrief.org/ }

03-12-2025 om 21:56 geschreven door peter  

Lost Amazon World Emerges From Bolivia's Hidden Wetlands

Gary Manners

Researchers have uncovered extensive pre-Hispanic settlements hidden beneath the waters and vegetation of Bolivia's Great Tectonic Lakes. Using advanced LiDAR technology and collaborative fieldwork with Indigenous communities, the Grupo de Trabajo para los Llanos de Moxos has revealed a sophisticated civilization that thrived between 600 and 1400 AD, transforming vast wetlands into productive agricultural landscapes through ingenious water management systems.

The discoveries, recently published in Frontiers, challenge long-held assumptions about the Amazon being a pristine, sparsely inhabited wilderness. Instead, it reveals generations of human innovation in one of the world's most challenging environments - the seasonally flooded savannas of the Llanos de Moxos, Bolivia's largest wetland system in the Amazon basin.

• LIDAR Identifies Vast Complexes Of A Lost Amazonian Civilization In Bolivia
• Lidar Scans Reveal Many Lost Cities, Thousands of Earthworks in the Amazon Rainforest

Engineering Marvels Hidden in Plain Sight

In September 2021, a team of specialists traveled to one of the least-documented areas of the Bolivian Amazon: the Great Tectonic Lakes of Exaltación in the department of Beni. The expedition, organized by the Grupo de Trabajo para los Llanos de Moxos (GTLM), brought together experts from the Wildlife Conservation Society, the National Museum of Natural History, the Institute of Ecology, the Biodiversity and Environment Research Center, the Aquatic Resources Research Center, and the Department of Anthropology of the Americas at the University of Bonn.

Between September 2021 and subsequent field seasons, researchers documented settlements at Paquío, Coquinal, Isla del Tesoro, and Jasschaja - each revealing different stages of habitation spanning eight centuries. What makes these findings extraordinary is the scale and sophistication of landscape engineering that allowed communities to thrive in an environment that floods dramatically with the seasons. The archaeological sites near Lakes Rogaguado and Ginebra represent one of the most significant pre-Columbian discoveries in recent years.

Panoramic view of Lake Ginebra.

(O. Torrico/WCS-Bolivia./Frontiers)

LiDAR surveys covering 8.6 square kilometers revealed complex networks of circular and rectangular ditches, some measuring up to 200 meters in diameter, alongside raised agricultural fields, drainage canals, and earthen platforms.

At the Coquinal site, researchers identified quadrangular ditches measuring 136 by 136 meters with lateral channels extending 185 to 220 meters toward the lake. These structures weren't randomly placed - they represent centuries of experimentation as communities developed increasingly sophisticated methods to control water flow and create stable areas for living and farming in a wetland that transforms dramatically throughout the year.

• Pre-Columbian Amazon Was Not So Virgin After All 
• Over 10000 Earthworks in the Amazon Revealed By LiDAR

A Balanced Diet From Water and Land

Excavations at the Paquío site, located 200 meters from Lake Rogaguado's shore, revealed shell middens and dense ceramic refuse that provide intimate glimpses into daily life. The site yielded 1,224 bone fragments representing at least 1,092 individual animals across six taxonomic groups. Fish dominated the assemblage, with 12 species identified including wolf fish, peacock bass, and the distinctive South American lungfish. Reptiles such as caimans, aquatic turtles, and snakes complemented a diet that also included mammals like capybaras, pacas, and armadillos.

Shell middens at the Paquío site.

(Credit: C. Jaimes/Frontiers)

Plant remains tell an equally compelling story. Analysis of 1,485 macroremains revealed evidence of maize cultivation alongside the harvesting of multiple palm species—moriche palm, corozo palm, cumare palm, totai palm, and peach palm. This botanical diversity, combined with the faunal evidence, points to a sophisticated subsistence strategy that balanced fishing, hunting, gathering, and agriculture. Rather than exploiting the environment unsustainably, these communities developed flexible ways of living that worked with the region's seasonal cycles, using periodic flooding as an opportunity rather than an obstacle.

Radiocarbon dating reveals two distinct occupation phases at Paquío: an early settlement around 600 AD and a more intensive occupation between 1000 and 1200 AD. The later phase coincided with the construction of extensive canal systems and raised fields connected to maize-based farming. At the nearby Jasschaja site, dating from 1300 to 1400 AD, evidence suggests intensified forest and crop management with greater botanical diversity.

Indigenous Knowledge Shapes Modern Research

The research was conducted in close collaboration with the Cayubaba and Movima Indigenous communities who continue to live in these landscapes. During the post-Covid-19 field seasons, representatives of the Cayubaba Indigenous Council, which includes 21 Cayubaba and Movima communities, assisted researchers in identifying areas for study, providing access to culturally important places, and specifying sites that should not be disturbed.

This partnership ensured the research reflected community priorities and contributed to a fuller understanding of the living heritage of the region. Through the Grupo de Trabajo para los Llanos de Moxos, Indigenous leaders and scientists are working together to link archaeological and ecological research with conservation initiatives. These efforts emphasize that the Llanos de Moxos is not only a center of biodiversity but also a landscape shaped through long human histories.

The region also holds prominence in ethnohistorical literature through its association with the legendary Land of Paititi. Historian Vera Tyuleneva's archival research suggests this area may have been the historical core of this mythical land, long sought after by explorers and missionaries since the sixteenth century. Father Agustín Zapata's 1693 account documented contact with the Cayubaba nation, led by a chief known as "El Gran Jefe Paititi," ruling over several villages with more than 2,000 individuals.

The newly discovered settlements add to a growing body of evidence suggesting the Amazon was home to far more extensive and sophisticated pre-Columbian societies than previously imagined. Similar discoveries using LiDAR technology have revealed urban centers throughout the Amazon basin, fundamentally changing our understanding of ancient Amazonian civilizations and their capacity to transform challenging environments into thriving cultural landscapes.

• Top image: Raised cultivation platforms near Lake Ginebra.
• Source: O. Torrico/WCS-Bolivia

By Gary Manners

References

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

02-12-2025 om 23:08 geschreven door peter  

A team of archaeologists led by researchers from Binghamton University has combined over 22,000 images of the primary quarry on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) to create the first-ever interactive 3D model of the remote site, allowing users to explore its archaeological marvels in unprecedented detail.

Unlike the more famous coastal platform that contains over a dozen Moai statues facing the ocean, the 3D model’s creators chose the Rano Raraku quarry because it contains over 1,000 statues in various forms of completion. The study also found evidence that the quarry was used by several different “tribes” working alongside each other.

“As an archeologist, the quarry is like the archeological Disneyland,” explained Binghamton University Professor of Anthropology Carl Lipo, lead author of the paper detailing the team’s work and member of a previous research team that proved the statues were ‘walked’ into place.

The team hopes their new 3D model will allow researchers to conduct studies in an extremely difficult-to-access area and to attract the attention of curious amateurs who may visit the island in person.

Building the Easter Island Moai Quarry 3D Model from Thousands of Images

According to a statement detailing the effort, the project began in October 2023 after a wildfire swept through the area, prompting locals to implore the scientific community to document the location. The Binghamton-led team, which also included Thomas Pingel and Kevin Heard from Binghamton’s Geography Department, responded by conducting the first-ever in-depth digital documentation of the quarry in January 2024.

Over 30 drone flights, the researchers collected high-resolution images from a wide range of perspectives, including angles unavailable to a ground observer.

“You can see things that you couldn’t actually see on the ground,” Professor Lipo said. “You can see tops and sides and all kinds of areas that just would never be able to walk to.”

Production technique revealed through 3D modeling. Unfinished moai attached to bedrock by “keels” along their backs demonstrate how carvers worked underneath from both sides until figures were separated from the source material. This production stage, difficult to document through traditional methods, is visible in the 3D model.

Image credit: Carl Lipo.

By the completion of the aerial sorties, the team had successfully captured around 22,000 images of the Rapa Nui quarry at 30-meter increments. Pingel said it was amazing how far the technology that allowed the team to collect the data used to create an interactive 3D VR model of the quarry has come in such a short time.

“The quality of this model is far above what could be done even just a couple of years ago, and the ability to share such a detailed model in a way that is accessible from anyone’s desktop computer is remarkable,” the researcher explained.

“The project was of a scale of complexity that had never been attempted before,” Professor Lipo added.

Users who want to explore the model will find a variety of built-in controls and functions, including the ability to zoom in and pan across individual statues and quarry features from numerous angles. Because the Rano Raraku quarry is located within a rugged, steep volcanic crater, the team said that traversing it on foot is too dangerous, making the 3D VR model of this remote location a priceless research tool.

“It has everything you can possibly imagine about moai construction, because that’s where they did most of the construction,” Professor Lipo said when describing the remote Easter Island quarry. “It’s always been this treasure of information and cultural heritage, but it’s remarkably underdocumented.”

Model Could Aid Researchers and Entice Visitors

When discussing the potential uses of their new interactive 3D VR map of the Easter Island Moai statue quarry, Lipo said their model could “open the door” for researchers by providing a three-dimensional replica and allowing everyday people the unusual opportunity to ‘visit’ the island without leaving home.

“We can say, ‘Here, go look at it.’ If you want to see the different kinds of carving, fly around and see stuff there,” the professor explained. “So, it’s really exciting to bring these two things together. We’re documenting something that really has needed to be documented, but in a way that’s really comprehensive and shareable.”

The researchers acknowledge that some locals have expressed concern that such a high-quality map may reduce tourism and eliminate the desire to see the site in person. However, Professor Lipo believes the detail and interactivity with the nearly 1,000 moai in a way previously unavailable will inspire people to go there in person and explore all of the wonders associated with the Island and its awe-inspiring sites, “because otherwise, you’re just seeing sort of snapshots of stuff.”

“What we would really like to do is be able to say, ‘Go visit it yourself. Learn from it,’ the researcher concluded. “This is an incredible landscape of stuff that you could really go visit, that you’ll want to see.”

The Binghamton University team’s 3D model of the Rapa Nui quarry is available to view online.

The paper “Megalithic statue (moai) production on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile)” was published in PLOS One.

•  Christopher Plain is a Science Fiction and Fantasy novelist and Head Science Writer at The Debrief. Follow and connect with him on X, learn about his books at plainfiction.com, or email him directly at christopher@thedebrief.org.

{ https://thedebrief.org/category/science/ }

29-11-2025 om 18:45 geschreven door peter  

Story by Sophie Parker - Wiltshir

The pits were found with geophysics, then boreholes were made to test the sediment.

© Internet Archaeology journal

The discovery of a series of huge Neolithic pits have been confirmed at the Stonehenge World Heritage Site after initial research a few years ago.

The massive pits at Durrington Walls in Wiltshire are set at regular intervals, ten metres in diameter and more than five metres deep.

Professor Vince Gaffney said that as a "cohesive structure" they could be "one of the largest prehistoric structures in Britain, if not the largest prehistoric structure".

The new research has been published in the Internet Archaeology Journal and concludes pits are almost certainly man-made and more than 4,000 years old.

Durrington Walls sits next to Woodhenge in the Stonehenge landscape

© Historic England Archive/Heritage Images via Getty Images

Prof Gaffney, from the University of Bradford, explained it would have taken a lot of effort to dig the holes - around two storeys deep - from the chalk landscape.

The horseshoe-shaped pits also link to another monument near Larkhill.

"The circle is pretty accurate. It suggests that people were pacing the distances out to make sure that the pits were aligned at the same distance all the way around as the distance from the henge to the earlier enclosure" he said.

Prof Gaffney said it added to previous evidence that people were counting and applying it.

"They're inscribing something about their cosmology, their belief systems, into the earth itself in a very dramatic way."

Researchers had surveyed 12 sq km (7.4 sq m) of the landscape when they spotted the giant holes.

No longer visible to the naked eye and too big to realistically excavate very quickly, they made narrow boreholes to take samples of the material from the features.

Experts analysed sediment from the pits to date them

© Internet Archaeology journal

DNA extracted from the samples revealed remains of animals, including sheep and cattle.

The samples also helped experts date the excavations.

Dr Tim Kinnaird from the University of St Andrews called it a "super henge" and used a method called luminescence dating: "So just before that sediment falls into the pit, it's exposed to daylight, so we can date the time of construction."

It also revealed they were kept open for 1,000 years: "So that spans changing cultures," he explained.

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{ BBC Wiltshire }

29-11-2025 om 18:18 geschreven door peter  

Archaeologists have proven the existence of a lost ring of pits near Stonehenge, and say it could be Britain's largest prehistoric structure.

The ring of more than 20 pits, some of which are 10 metres deep and five metres wide, extends in an arc more than a mile across.

At their centre are the ancient sites of Durrington Walls and Woodhenge, 1.8 miles (2.9 kilometres) northeast of Stonehenge, where the henge builders held ritual feasts.

Using an array of novel scientific techniques, researchers now say that these pits were likely constructed by Neolithic people around 4,500 years ago.

Researchers say that carving the pits into Wiltshire's chalky ground would have taken an enormous amount of planning and effort.

Lead researcher Professor Vincent Gaffney, of the University of Bradford, told the Daily Mail that the vast structure was a 'cosmological statement'.

He says: 'They link Durrington walls henge and another site at Larkhill – a causewayed enclosure about a thousand years earlier. '

'And in doing so, inscribed a boundary into the landscape – setting aside an area of special significance.'

Scientists have proven the existence of a lost ring of pits nearby Stonehenge, which is likely the UK's largest prehistoric monument 

The pits surround ancient sites of Durrington Walls and Woodhenge, 1.8 miles (2.9 kilometres) northeast of Stonehenge (pictured). These sites are believed to be where the Stonehenge builders held ritual feasts 

The pits surrounding Durrington Walls were first found in 2020, and were immediately hailed as one of Britain's most impressive ancient sites.

The discovery of the pit circle appeared to further cement the Salisbury Plane's reputation as a uniquely important religious site for Britain's Neolithic people. 

This area is not only home to Stonehenge, but also a wider series of interconnected ceremonial structures, stone circles, and cemeteries from the Stone Age.

Durrington Walls, which sits at the epicentre of the pit circle, is a 'superhenge' that is believed to be the largest anywhere in the UK.

Likewise, the nearby 'Woodhenge' was an enormous timber monument built around 2500 BC, consisting of six concentric rings of posts of varying size forming an oval monument 40 metres across.

However, scientists have questioned whether the pits were really dug by humans or whether they might have been natural features of the landscape.

In a new research paper, titled 'The Perils of Pits', Professor Gaffney and his co–authors present a new batch of scientific evidence to prove the pits' human origins.

Since no one technique could answer all of their questions, the researchers deployed an array of techniques to work out the exact structure of the pits.

The pits encircle the ancient sites of Durrington Walls and Woodhenge. Woodhenge was an enormous timber monument built around 2500 BC, consisting of six concentric rings of posts of varying size forming an oval monument 40 metres across. Pictured: Stone pillars marking the locations of Woodhenge's timber posts

Scientists had questioned whether the pits were really man–made. So scientists used an array of scientific tests to work out their exact shape and structure 

First, they used a technique called electrical resistance tomography, which measures changes in electrical resistance at the surface to work out the size of underground structures.

Then, radar and magnetic imaging were used to assess their depth and shape.

'This in itself did not prove these features to be man–made,' says Professor Gaffney.

'So sediment cores were extracted and an array of techniques, including novel geochemistry, were used to characterise the nature of the soils.'

'Optically stimulated luminescence' was used to work out the last time that the soils were exposed to the sun, and 'sedDNA' to extract plant and animal DNA directly from the dirt.

This revealed that each pit had the same pattern of repeating layers, starting in the late Neolithic period – something that would be extremely unlikely to happen naturally.

These techniques also identified the DNA of sheep and cattle, which suggests that the pit circle was being occupied and farmed at the time.

Professor Gaffney says: 'It confirms that this structure – probably the largest prehistoric monument in Britain at least – is a purposefully constructed monument in a landscape which is itself exceptional.'

The researchers used a technique called electrical resistance tomography, which measures changes in electrical resistance at the surface to work out the size of underground structures (illustrated)

The researchers found that the pits had a consistent pattern of layers and even contained DNA of cattle and sheep. This suggests that they were deliberately built by humans 

By showing that these vast pits were carved by humans, the researchers have shown that Britain's ancient people were much more organised than had previously been believed.

'The size of the structure demonstrates the society they lived in was capable of planning and motivating large numbers of people for religious purposes,' says Professor Gaffney.

Read More

• Stonehenge's secret SISTER: Ancient burial site discovered in Dorset 

The pit circle is so large that you cannot see across to the other side, but still traces a near–perfect circle around Durrington Walls.

This regularity suggests that the pits must have been laid out by pacing, which implies that the people of ancient Britain had a numerical system for counting.

If true, this could be some of the very earliest evidence for the ability to count in Neolithic Britain.

However, Professor Gaffney says we will 'probably not' ever know exactly why these pits were built.

The Stonehenge monument standing today was the final stage of a four part building project that ended 3,500 years ago

Stonehenge is one of the most prominent prehistoric monuments in Britain. The Stonehenge that can be seen today is the final stage that was completed about 3,500 years ago. 

According to the monument's website, Stonehenge was built in four stages:   

First stage: The first version of Stonehenge was a large earthwork or Henge, comprising a ditch, bank and the Aubrey holes, all probably built around 3100 BC. 

The Aubrey  holes are round pits in the chalk, about one metre (3.3 feet) wide and deep, with steep sides and flat bottoms. 

Stonehenge (pictured) is one of the most prominent prehistoric monuments in Britain

They form a circle about 86.6 metres (284 feet) in diameter. 

Excavations revealed cremated human bones in some of the chalk filling, but the holes themselves were likely not made to be used as graves, but as part of a religious ceremony.

After this first stage, Stonehenge was abandoned and left untouched for more than 1,000 years. 

Second stage: The second and most dramatic stage of Stonehenge started around 2150 years BC, when about 82 bluestones from the Preseli mountains in south-west Wales were transported to the site. It's thought that the stones, some of which weigh four tonnes each, were dragged on rollers and sledges to the waters at Milford Haven, where they were loaded onto rafts.

They were carried on water along the south coast of Wales and up the rivers Avon and Frome, before being dragged overland again near Warminster and Wiltshire.

The final stage of the journey was mainly by water, down the river Wylye to Salisbury, then the Salisbury Avon to west Amesbury. 

The journey spanned nearly 240 miles, and once at the site, the stones were set up in the centre to form an incomplete double circle. 

During the same period, the original entrance was widened and a pair of Heel Stones were erected. The nearer part of the Avenue, connecting Stonehenge with the River Avon, was built aligned with the midsummer sunrise. 

Third stage: The third stage of Stonehenge, which took place about 2000 years BC, saw the arrival of the sarsen stones (a type of sandstone), which were larger than the bluestones.

They were likely brought from the Marlborough Downs (40 kilometres, or 25 miles, north of Stonehenge). 

The largest of the sarsen stones transported to Stonehenge weighs 50 tonnes, and transportation by water would not have been possible, so it's suspected that they were transported using sledges and ropes. 

Calculations have shown that it would have taken 500 men using leather ropes to pull one stone, with an extra 100 men needed to lay the rollers in front of the sledge.

These stones were arranged in an outer circle with a continuous run of lintels - horizontal supports. 

Inside the circle, five trilithons - structures consisting of two upright stones and a third across the top as a lintel - were placed in a horseshoe arrangement, which can still be seen today. 

Final stage: The fourth and final stage took place just after 1500 years BC, when the smaller bluestones were rearranged in the horseshoe and circle that can be seen today.

The original number of stones in the bluestone circle was probably around 60, but these have since been removed or broken up. Some remain as stumps below ground level. 

Source: Stonehenge.co.uk 

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{ https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/index.html }

28-11-2025 om 16:51 geschreven door peter  

 3D Model Unlocks Just Who Made Easter Island's Moai

Gary Manners

Researchers at Binghamton University have created the first comprehensive three-dimensional model of Easter Island's Rano Raraku quarry, providing unprecedented insights into how the iconic moai statues were produced. The groundbreaking digital reconstruction, built from over 11,000 drone photographs, reveals 30 distinct workshop areas where ancient Polynesian carvers simultaneously created the massive stone figures, challenging long-held assumptions about centralized authority in monument construction.

The project emerged from necessity after a devastating wildfire swept through the quarry in October 2023. When researchers arrived at Rapa Nui in January 2024, a local community group requested comprehensive documentation in case the site suffered permanent damage. Professor Carl Lipo from Binghamton University's Department of Anthropology, along with colleagues Thomas Pingel and Kevin Heard from the Geography Department, seized the opportunity to create what he describes as "archeological Disneyland" in digital form.

• Easter Island and the Mysteries of the Moai
• Photos Reveal Giant Easter Island Moai Statues are Covered in Mysterious Symbols

Mapping the Sacred Quarry

The team conducted approximately 30 drone flights, capturing 22,000 high-resolution images at 30-meter increments above the volcanic crater. Using advanced computer software, they stitched these photographs into a detailed three-dimensional model that took months to complete. The resulting interactive visualization allows anyone with an internet connection to explore the quarry from angles impossible to see even when physically present on the remote island.

"You can see things that you couldn't actually see on the ground," explained Lipo in a statement from Binghamton University. "You can see tops and sides and all kinds of areas that you'd never be able to walk to." The quarry sits within a volcanic crater too steep and rugged to safely traverse, making traditional documentation methods incomplete and potentially dangerous.

The comprehensive 3D model of Rano Raraku quarry reveals complex spatial organization of production activities across the quarry.

(PLOS ONE)

The model documented 426 moai in various stages of completion, 341 extraction trenches, 133 voids where finished statues once stood, and five anchor points used for lowering the massive figures down slopes. Perhaps most significantly, it revealed production features previously unknown to researchers, including quarrying areas on the crater's exterior slope and a sophisticated system of carved holes and bollards that facilitated statue transport.

• Study Claims to Have Solved Mystery of Giant Easter Island Hats
• New Moai Statue Found on Chile's Easter Island Excites Researchers

Unfinished moai attached to bedrock by “keels” along their backs demonstrate how carvers worked underneath from both sides until figures were separated from the source material. This production stage, difficult to document through traditional methods, is visible in the 3D model.

(Carl Lipo/Binghampton University)

Decentralized Production Challenges Assumptions

The research, published in the journal PLOS One on November 26, fundamentally challenges theories that monument building requires hierarchical political structures. By identifying 30 separate workshop areas, each employing different carving techniques and working simultaneously, the team demonstrated that moai production followed a decentralized, clan-based pattern rather than centralized control.

"We see separate workshops that really align to different clan groups that are working intensively in their specific areas," Lipo noted. "You can really see graphically from the construction that there's a series of statues being made here, another series of statues here, and that they're lined up next to each other. It's different workshops."

This pattern aligns with historical accounts from early ethnographers who described Rapa Nui as organized into multiple independent kin-based groups competing for prestige through monument construction.

The digital model revealed at least three distinct quarrying methods used across the site. In 143 cases, carvers defined facial features before outlining the head and body. Another 120 instances show blocks completely outlined before detailed carving began. Five examples demonstrate sideways carving into near-vertical cliff faces. This technological diversity suggests autonomous groups adapting to local geological conditions rather than following standardized procedures imposed by a central authority.

The findings carry implications far beyond Easter Island archaeology. As societies worldwide grapple with questions of governance and cooperation, Rapa Nui provides evidence that complex cooperative activities and large-scale projects can emerge through horizontal social networks rather than vertical power structures. The island's inhabitants successfully coordinated monumental construction across generations while maintaining decentralized political organization.

Moai statues at Ahu Akivi on Easter Island.

(Phil Whitehouse / CC BY 2.0)

Preserving Cultural Heritage Through Technology

Thomas Pingel emphasized the revolutionary nature of their technological approach: "The quality of this model is far above what could be done even just a couple of years ago, and the ability to share such a detailed model in a way that is accessible from anyone's desktop computer is remarkable." The project represents a leap forward in archaeological documentation, offering preservation benefits alongside research value.

The three-dimensional documentation serves as a crucial baseline for monitoring erosion, climate impacts, tourism effects, and site degradation at the UNESCO World Heritage location. Following the 2022 wildfire that threatened the quarry, local heritage managers from the Rapa Nui Comunidad Indígena Mau Henua recognized the urgent need for comprehensive records to assess damage and develop protection strategies.

Despite 140 years of documentation efforts beginning with Lieutenant-Captain Geiseler's 1882 descriptions, systematic data for Rano Raraku remained incomplete. Katherine Routledge's pioneering 1914 survey inventoried 293 moai, but subsequent studies produced varying counts and incomplete publications. The new model finally provides researchers and cultural heritage managers with comprehensive, accessible data for the first time.

Looking forward, Lipo hopes the model will inspire rather than replace physical visits. "People on the island are afraid that if we build three-dimensional models that no one will go to the island," he acknowledged.

"But I think this actually will inspire people to go there. Because otherwise, you're just seeing sort of snapshots of stuff. This is an incredible landscape of stuff that you could really go visit, that you'll want to see."

The research demonstrates how ancient technology and engineering knowledge enabled Polynesian seafarers to accomplish remarkable feats. Previous experiments showed that relatively small teams of 15-50 people could transport even the largest moai by "walking" them upright using ropes, eliminating the need for massive centralized labor forces. The quarry evidence now confirms this decentralized production model extended to statue creation itself.

The interactive 3D model is freely accessible online, allowing researchers, students, and curious observers worldwide to explore this archaeological treasure. The team will continue analyzing the model to extract new insights about quarrying strategies, production sequences, and social organization. As Lipo emphasizes, this unprecedented documentation tool enables analysis that was never possible with traditional methods, potentially revealing new chapters in the story of one of humanity's most enigmatic achievements.

• Top image: The main quarry of Easter Island, home to nearly 1,000 moai statues.  
• Source: Carl Lipo/Binghampton University

By Gary Manners

References

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology }

27-11-2025 om 21:51 geschreven door peter  

Easter Island mystery is SOLVED: Scientists finally pinpoint who built the iconic stone heads 900 years ago

• READ MORE: New 'stone head' statue mysteriously appears on Easter Island

By WILIAM HUNTER, SENIOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY REPORTER

One of the biggest mysteries surrounding Easter Island may finally be solved - as scientists pinpoint who built the iconic stone heads over 900 years ago.

In the past, researchers assumed that the 12 to 80-ton statues would have required the combined efforts of hundreds of labourers to build and move.

However, new archaeological evidence shows that the statues, known as moai, were not carved by a single powerful chiefdom.

Instead, each moai was carved by a small clan or by an individual family, with as few as four to six people working on a single statue.

Using a new 3D model of the island's main moai quarry, which you can explore below, archaeologists identified 30 unique 'workshops' where the statues were produced.

The researchers found that each clan seemed to have had their own unique artistic style, specialised techniques, and preferred digging sites.

Lead author Professor Carl Lipo, of Binghamton University, says: 'We see separate workshops that really align to different clan groups that are working intensively in their specific areas.

'You can really see graphically from the construction that there's a series of statues being made here, another series of statues here and that they're lined up next to each other.'

Researchers have finally solved the mystery of the Easter Island heads (pictured), as they reveal who built these enormous monuments 900 years ago 

Scientists have combined 22,000 photos of the Rapa Nui quarry, where hundreds of heads can be found, into a single 3D model (pictured) that you can explore below

Moai production on Rapa Nui began sometime around the 13th century as Polynesian communities began to carve ever larger monuments.

By the time the first Western explorers arrived in the 1700s, there were almost 1,000 statues dotted around the island, with many more lying partly finished inside the Rano Raraku quarry.

However, how and why this island community invested such vast resources in building these monuments has remained a mystery.

'The quarry is like the archaeological Disneyland,' says Professor Lipo.

'It's always been this treasure of information and cultural heritage, but it's remarkably underdocumented.'

In a new study, published in the journal PLoS One, Professor Lippo and his colleagues attempted to solve this puzzle by creating a detailed digital map of the quarry.

Using a drone, the researchers took some 22,000 pictures of the site and stitched them into a single 3D model that anyone can explore.

In addition to preserving the site for future study, this incredible map has also revealed some surprising details that have remained hidden from previous studies.

Using a new 3D model of the site where the heads, known as moai, were produced, scientists revealed that each head was manufactured by a small family or clan rather than by a central authority 

Professor Lipo says: 'You can see things that you couldn't actually see on the ground. You can see tops and sides and all kinds of areas that just would never be able to walk to.'

Importantly, this revealed just how different each of the workshops really was.

For example, the moai were usually carved by refining the facial details first before outlining the head and body.

But others carved out the entire block first before starting on the face, while others worked sideways into the cliffs.

Likewise, some moai bear the distinct signs of a unique artistic vision, including some which have a distinctively feminine appearance.

The workshops also appear to have been divided by natural features of the rock, rather than by broad geographical areas.

The researchers say this shows that access to the quarry wasn't controlled by a single authority, but rather that individual groups negotiated between themselves.

These findings challenge the view that large monuments like the moai are evidence of a large, powerful hierarchy that mobilised lots of people on a single project.

Archaeologists found evidence of 30 different 'workshops' (picture), each with their own unique style and methods 

Some clans even had their own unique style, with one group producing a female moai (pictured)

Easter Island timeline 

This supports a growing amount of evidence that building and moving the moai wouldn't have required nearly as much labour as previous researchers believed.

In the past, people believed that the moai were dragged on their backs from the quarry to their final positions, which would have taken a huge amount of effort.

But in a recent study, anthropologists found that the people of Rapa Nui likely used ropes to rock the statues in a zig–zag pattern.

By attaching ropes to either side of the head and pulling back and forth, the moai can be rocked side to side and shuffled forward in a 'walking' motion.

This technique would have allowed small teams of people to move the enormous moai over long distances with relatively little effort.

The stone heads were then moved along specially made 'moai roads', which connected the quarry to their final destination. 

Made to be around 4.5 metres wide with a concave profile, the researchers found that the specific shape of these roads helped to stabilise the heads and made them more likely to shuffle forwards. 

Using a combination of 3D modelling and real–life experiments, Professor Lipo and his collaborators previously found that they could 'walk' a moai with just 18 people.

This method proved so easy that people only needed to pull the ropes with one hand once the rocking had started. 

This supports the idea that the moai were produced and moved by a far smaller number of people than scientists had previously thought, with studies showing that as few as 18 people could 'walk' the sculpture using ropes 

This is further evidence that moai production likely took place on a small scale, with only a few people needing to be involved at any time.

The researchers estimate that making a moai would only take four to six carvers and as few as 10 to 20 additional personnel to carry supplies and help with tool and rope production.

This makes sense since anthropologists believe that Rapa Nui was not politically unified, but instead consisted of many small and independent family groups.  

Professor Lipo says: 'When we look at the ability for people to move giant statues, it doesn't take that many people to do it.

'So that it really connects all the dots between the number of people it takes to move the statues, the number of places, the scale at which the quarrying is happening and then the scale of the communities.'

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{ https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/index.html }

27-11-2025 om 18:01 geschreven door peter  

Analyzing the Controversial Ancient Aliens Theory: Separating Fact from Fiction

Illustration of ancient aliens and its host

What is the Ancient Aliens Theory? The ancient aliens theory suggests that extraterrestrial beings have been visiting Earth for thousands of years, and that they have played a significant role in the development of human civilization. Proponents of the theory argue that ancient texts and artwork depict evidence of alien visitation, and that many of the world’s greatest achievements can be attributed to extraterrestrial influence.

Arguments For the Ancient Aliens Theory:

• Ancient Texts: Supporters of the ancient aliens theory point to various ancient texts, such as the Sumerian tablets and the Hindu Vedas, which contain descriptions of gods and flying machines that could be interpreted as evidence of alien contact.
• Advanced Technology: The theory suggests that ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians and the Mayans, possessed advanced technologies that were not possible with the technology available at the time. Proponents argue that these technologies must have come from extraterrestrial sources.
• Unexplained Artifacts: There are many unexplained artifacts that have been discovered throughout history, such as the Antikythera Mechanism, an ancient Greek device that was used for predicting astronomical positions and eclipses. Some argue that these artifacts could only have been created with the help of extraterrestrial technology.
• Astronomical Alignments: Supporters of the ancient aliens theory argue that many ancient structures, such as the pyramids, were built with astronomical alignments that would have required advanced knowledge of the cosmos. Some suggest that this knowledge could have only come from extraterrestrial beings.
• Similarities Across Cultures: Proponents of the theory point out that many cultures around the world have similar stories and artwork depicting beings from the sky or gods with supernatural abilities. They argue that these similarities could be evidence of a shared history of alien visitation.
• Alien Abductions: Some supporters of the theory believe that alien abductions are proof of extraterrestrial visitation. They point to the consistency of reported experiences, such as being taken aboard a spacecraft and subjected to medical procedures, as evidence of a real phenomenon.
• Crop Circles: The phenomenon of crop circles, intricate patterns that appear in crop fields, has been attributed by some to extraterrestrial activity. Supporters of the ancient aliens theory argue that these patterns could be a form of communication from alien beings.
• Ancient Cave Paintings: Some ancient cave paintings depict figures that appear to be wearing space suits or helmets, leading some to suggest that they could be evidence of ancient astronaut visitation.

Arguments Against the Ancient Aliens Theory:

• Lack of Evidence: Critics of the theory argue that there is no concrete evidence to support the idea that aliens have visited Earth. While some ancient texts and artwork can be interpreted in this way, there is no solid proof of extraterrestrial contact.
• Human Ingenuity: Opponents of the theory argue that the achievements of ancient civilizations can be attributed to human ingenuity and the development of technology over time. While some of these achievements may seem advanced for their time, they were still created by humans.
• Misinterpretation: Some critics argue that the ancient aliens theory is based on a misinterpretation of historical texts and artwork. Rather than evidence of alien contact, they argue that these artifacts can be explained through other means.
• Evolution of Human Civilization: Critics of the theory suggest that the development of human civilization can be explained through the natural evolution of human society, culture, and technology. They argue that the idea of extraterrestrial influence diminishes the importance of human achievement and undermines the agency of human beings.
• Lack of Physical Evidence: Opponents of the ancient aliens theory point out that there is a lack of physical evidence to support the idea of extraterrestrial visitation. They argue that if aliens had visited Earth, there should be more concrete evidence, such as artifacts or remains of extraterrestrial beings.
• Possibility of Alternative Explanations: Some critics suggest that the artifacts and structures cited by supporters of the theory could have been created through other means, such as advanced techniques, collaboration between different civilizations, or the use of lost technology.
• Scientific Inconsistencies: Critics of the theory argue that the ancient aliens theory is not supported by scientific evidence, and that it is often contradicted by scientific findings. For example, there is no evidence of advanced alien technology in the archaeological record, and many of the technological achievements of ancient civilizations can be explained through human innovation.

Despite the lack of concrete evidence to support the ancient aliens theory, it has gained a significant following over the years. From popular TV shows to bestselling books, the idea of extraterrestrial visitation has captured the imagination of people around the world.

Those who believe in the theory argue that it provides an explanation for some of the mysteries of our world, such as the construction of the pyramids or the purpose of ancient artifacts. They believe that the intervention of extraterrestrial beings could help explain why some of these ancient achievements seem so advanced for their time.

However, skeptics of the theory argue that it is based on speculation and misinterpretation of historical texts and artwork. They suggest that the idea of ancient aliens is simply a way to fill in the gaps of our understanding of the past.

Regardless of your position on the ancient aliens theory, it is important to recognize its impact on our society. The theory has sparked important discussions about the history of our civilization and the possibility of extraterrestrial life. It has encouraged people to question what we know about our world and to explore the unknown.

Furthermore, the ancient aliens theory has also inspired new scientific research and investigations into the possibility of extraterrestrial life. Many scientists believe that there could be life on other planets in our universe, and they are actively searching for evidence of this.

In conclusion, while the ancient aliens theory may lack concrete proof, it has still managed to capture the imagination of people around the world. Whether or not you believe in the theory is a matter of personal opinion, but it has certainly contributed to important discussions and research in the scientific community. It is a reminder of the mysteries that still exist in our world, and the possibility of discovering new and exciting things in the future.

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{ https://curiosmos.com/category/unsolved-mysteries/ }

22-11-2025 om 21:27 geschreven door peter  

An international team of scientists led by the Carnegie Institute has discovered chemical evidence of life in rocks dating back more than 3.3 billion years. They also found molecular traces indicating that photosynthetic organisms appeared nearly a billion years earlier than previously thought.

The earliest life on Earth left few molecular traces behind. The few fragile remains, such as ancient cells and bacterial mats, were destroyed by tectonic processes that led to the renewal of the Earth’s crust. All these transformations have virtually erased the biosignatures that contain crucial clues about the origin and early evolution of life.

Nevertheless, thanks to new technologies, scientists now have a chance to look into Earth’s past. An international team of researchers has suggested that the distribution of biomolecular fragments found in ancient rocks still preserves information about the biosphere, even if the original biomolecules have not been preserved. The team used high-resolution chemical analysis to break down organic and inorganic materials into molecular fragments, and then trained an artificial intelligence system to recognise the chemical ‘fingerprints’ left behind by life.

Organic matter extracted from samples of 2.5-billion-year-old rock containing fossilized microorganisms like the one in this photomicrograph still contains biomolecular fragments that may have been produced via photosynthesis.

Image credit: Andrew D. Czaja

Scientists examined more than 400 samples ranging from plants and animals to billion-year-old fossils and meteorites. The artificial intelligence model distinguished between biological and non-biological materials with over 90% accuracy and detected signs of photosynthesis in rocks at least 2.5 billion years old.

According to the team, until now, molecular traces reliably indicating life have only been found in rocks younger than 1.7 billion years old. This new method roughly doubles the time range that scientists can study using chemical biosignatures.

abstract organic structures

The black features in this rock are traces of photosynthesis dating back 2.5 billion years.

(Andrea Corpolongo/Carnegie Institution for Science)

Organic material found in 2.5-billion-year-old rock.

(Andrew D. Czaja/Carnegie Institution for Science)

The new approach could be used not only in Earth science, but also in space exploration. It could be used to analyse samples from Mars or other celestial bodies to determine whether they were once habitable.

• Provided by Phys.org

• Posted in News, Science

{ https://universemagazine.com/en/articles-en/ }

18-11-2025 om 23:26 geschreven door peter